Domestic Violence Abuse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Domestic Violence Abuse - Essay Example This has been the legacy of the Tennessee laws regarding domestic violence. However, recent decades have witnessed a shift in public awareness accompanied by a greater sense of responsibility within the law to protect the women, men, and children who become the victims of abuse and a greater willingness of the courts to prosecute the offenders. One of the key areas that Tennessee law has changed in recent years is the ability of the state to intervene in prosecution of domestic violence with or without the cooperation of the victim. According to the Knoxville Tennessee Bar Association, "unlike in the past when victims were required to swear out warrants, officers now are being trained to swear out all warrants involving domestic violence themselves" (How to Use the Law). If the offender is arrested, the level of the crime will depend upon the egregiousness of the act. In Tennessee most prosecutions for domestic violence are prosecuted as Class A misdemeanors that carry a sentence of not more than 1 year (How to Use the Law). In addition to the criminal sentence most offenders are also required to attend a domestic violence intervention program. The victim is also entitled to obtain a Civil Order of Protection that provides an additional layer of legal protection against domestic violence and threats. The recent changes in Tennessee law that have broadened t... While the change was necessary to prevent losing federal grants, defense lawyer Clay Whittaker "believes the fallout from the law change is that the people with orders of protection against them could end up bearing the burden of court costs in all instances, even if the plaintiffs' complaints eventually are found to have no merit" (Mercer). This is especially relevant due to other recent changes in Tennessee law that define "adults or minors who are dating or who have dated or who have or had sexual relationship" as eligible for domestic protection orders, which could open the doors for abuse of the existing laws in the form of revenge or overreaction (Bohn). These definitions are vague and can include many people who can be subjected to prosecution without any warning or committing any offensive activity. One of the most significant, and widely praised, changes in Tennessee law has been in the provisions and penalties for spousal rape. US law has traditionally defined rape as "sexual intercourse with a female not his wife without her consent" (Spousal Rape Bill Back). In the last 30 years, states have moved to amend the law to repeal the spousal exclusion from the rape laws. In 1998, the Tennessee spousal exemption was changed to read that a spouse could be charged only if there was a weapon involved, there was serious bodily injury, or the couple was separated or divorced (Echegaray). In 2005, Tennessee amended its law again to eliminate the spousal exemption and "made the rape of a spouse as serious as the rape of a stranger" (Echegaray). This was a significant step in recognizing that domestic violence is a serious offense and a grave threat to public safety. In

The Use of Biochemistry in Forensic Science

The Use of Biochemistry in Forensic Science Biochemistry is of great utility for Forensic Science investigations, with the biochemical technique of DNA fingerprinting being of particular importance. The development of the biochemical techniques for DNA sequencing allowed the genomes of organisms to be sequenced (Berg et al, 2002: Prelude). As a result, genetic markers can now be used to identify individual members of a population (James and Nordby, 2005: 283). This capacity is clearly beneficial in forensic investigations. However, despite their utility, biochemical techniques must be applied with caution in forensic science. The results of biochemical techniques used in forensic science can have serious implications for the lives of individuals. I will demonstrate both the value and limitations of using biochemistry in forensic science through focussing upon the use of Low Copy Number (LCN) DNA typing in forensic science. LCN DNA profiling Introduction The development of LCN DNA profiling provided forensic scientists with the capacity to analyse minute quantities of DNA. The technique is sensitive enough to analyse just a few cells (Gill, 2001: 229). This technique is therefore of particular benefit when investigating serious crimes for which there is limited evidence available (FSS, 2005a: no pagination). An example is provided by the forensic investigation which followed the 2001 murder of Peter Falconio in Australia. The evidence base was severely limited as no body was found. However, very small quantities of DNA were discovered inside the hand ties which had been used during the attack and on the gear stick of the victims van (FSS, 2005: no pagination). The use of LCN DNA profiling enabled this evidence to be linked to Murdoch, who was already suspected of the murder (FSS, 2005: no pagination). LCN DNA analysis was also crucial in solving a documented murder in Northern Italy. Although no trace evidence was discovered on the victims body or at the scene of the crime, a search of the victims car provided blood stains, sweat and skin samples. The small amounts of DNA yielded by these samples provided profiles which were identical to that of the saliva obtained from the suspect (Pizzamiglio et al, 2004: 437). When confronted with this evidence, the suspect confessed the crime (Ibid.). The biochemical technique The increased sensitivity of the LCN technique is achieved by increasing the number of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification cycles used (Gill, 2001: 229). Although optimum efficiency is attained by using no more than 28-30 PCR amplification cycles (Ibid.), a variety of studies have yielded useful results using more cycles. Findlay et al (1997) obtained profiles from single cells by using 34 cycles; Wiegand et al (2000) analysed epithelial cells which had been transferred from the assailant during strangulation using 31 cycles and Van Hoofstat et al (1998) analysed fingerprints from tool grips by using as many as 40 cycles. The increased sensitivity offered by this technique is incredibly beneficial for forensic science investigations. The key tenet of forensics is: every contact leaves a trace (Locard, 1910). By enabling the analysis of barely visible samples, LCN DNA profiling increases the investigative power of forensic science (Hoffman Wulff, 2006: 2). However, with this increased sensitivity comes increased risk of misinterpretation. For example, the highly sensitive technique may reveal DNA from sources other than the sample analysed and the results must be interpreted with extreme caution (Gill, 2001: 229). The limitations of the technique will now be explored in detail. Limitations of the technique 1. Experimental errors Due to the increased number of PCR cycles used for LCN DNA profiling, there is an increased likelihood of experimental errors, which may significantly affect the DNA profiles obtained (Budowle, 2001). These experimental errors include: preferential amplification of alleles (causing allele drop out), the appearance of false alleles when stutters are preferentially amplified and the preferential amplification of alleles which are present because of contamination (Gill, 2001). As a result of these experimental errors, it is difficult to validate the results of LCN DNA typing (Budowle et al, 2001: 2). Because experimental errors occur randomly, the results of LCN DNA profiling are not reproducible and replicate analyses can produce different DNA typing results (Gill, 2001). In addition, because the established interpretation thresholds for DNA analysis are too large to apply to the LCN technique, there is no stochastic threshold for use when evaluating the results of LCN processing (Hoffman Wulff, 2006: 2). Thus, the number of alleles required in order to establish likeness is open for debate (Budowle et al, 2001). 2. Contamination Alongside awareness of the possibility for experimental errors to reduce the accuracy of LCN DNA profiling, it is important to consider the impact of evidentiary contamination. There is a high risk of DNA contamination before, during and after the forensic event under consideration, which reduces the accuracy of the technique. Although there is also a risk of contamination when undertaking standard DNA analysis, it has less impact upon the results of the profiling. As adventitious transfer and contamination usually involve only low levels of DNA, their effect upon the profile obtained by standard DNA analysis is minimal (Gill, 2001: 231). However, in LCN DNA analysis, the low levels of DNA from contamination pose a far more significant problem. As the essence of the technique is the detection of minute levels of DNA, there is a far greater likelihood of contamination DNA having a substantial effect upon the profiles obtained. Due to the sensitivity of the technique, both background l evel DNA and DNA from casual contact will be detected (Budowle, 2001: 2). This is most problematic, as these contaminants cannot be removed physically or statistically. Because there is no way that the movements and contacts of the victim before, during and after the crime event can be assessed and accounted for, the possibilities of adventitious transfer cannot be directly ascertained (Gill, 2001: 230). The possibility of secondary transfer ought to also be acknowledged. Theoretically, secondary transfer means that extraneous DNA could be carried by the perpetrator and deposited at the crime scene. Van Oorschot and Jones demonstrated that DNA can be transferred from objects to hands (1997). Although the likelihood of such transfers is contested, such secondary transfers could result in the deposition of a multi-source sample at a crime scene (Phipps and Petricevic, 2007; Ladd et al, 1999). It may be very difficult to establish whether a true mixture of DNA profiles exists when using the LCN technique (Hoffman Wulff, 2006: 2). Therefore, it is important to acknowledge that evidence may include a mixture of DNA profiles, which may include disinvolved individuals, the perpetrator and crime scene investigators (Gill, 2001: 230). Such a possibility greatly complicates interpretation and means that the results obtained could well be flawed. When the results provided by the technique may a ffect the liberty of an individual, it is particularly important that limitations and possibilities for inaccuracy are acknowledged. Difficulties related to contamination are made even more significant as a result of the considerable lack of understanding about the issues of the transfer and persistence of DNA, which constrains scientists ability to statistically account for DNA contamination (Gill, 2001: 230). There are significant differences in DNA deposition between individuals and as some are better than others at shedding DNA, decay rates are unpredictable (Phipps and Petricevic, 2007: 167; Lowe et al, 2002). For example, Murray et al (2003: 780) found that good DNA shedders would come to form the major component of the DNA mixture found on a second hand watch strap after only several days. By contrast, poor shedders took as long as two weeks to comprise the majority of the DNA in the mixture (Ibid.). Similarly, van Oorschot and Jones (1997: 767) demonstrated that; when a number of individuals handled objects, the dominant DNA profile was not always that of the individual who last held the object. Rather, th e dominant DNA profile was dependent on the shedding ability of individuals (van Oorschot and Jones, 1997: 767). However, identifying individuals as being either good or poor shedders is not possible, because the shedding ability of a given individual does not remain consistent. Indeed, variable factors have been demonstrated to affect the amount of DNA deposition. Phipps and Petricevic (2007) established that DNA deposition is affected by factors such as whether contact is made by the dominant or non-dominant hand and the time since the hand was last washed. Therefore, as the transfer and persistence rates of DNA are impossible to establish, LCN DNA profiling cannot provide an indication of when DNA deposition occurred. As such, both awareness of and further research into the multiple factors which influence DNA shedding is required (Phipps and Petricevic, 2007; Hoffman Wulff, 2006). Further contamination can occur during the collection of evidence. Forensic evidence is generally collected in uncontrolled environments, by police officers whose training in preserving the integrity of biological samples is, at best, limited (Lynch, 2003: 96). This factor becomes especially problematic when using LCN DNA analysis, as the small sample size greatly increases the risk of contamination. Given that LCN DNA analysis ought only to be undertaken in sterile environments, where equipment and furniture must be frequently bleached, the quality of the collection of the sample is very important (Gill, 2001: 229). Although laboratory standards cannot be expected, the evidence must be reviewed with an acknowledgement of this limitation. In the UK, Regina v. Hoey in 2007 demonstrated the potential impact of these limitations. The basis for Hoeys 2003 conviction for 29 murders during the Omagh bomb attacks was the evidence obtained from LCN DNA profiling. However, the conviction was then overturned on appeal in 2007, as the appeal established that the DNA evidence had been handled in a thoughtless and slapdash fashion (Weir, 2007: 23). Although this example displays that evidence which has been treated incorrectly may be dismissed at appeal, it is crucial to note that evidence ought to be presented alongside information about the potential limitations of its accuracy, as grave miscarriages of justice may otherwise result. Due to the limitations of the technique, analysis of the results of LCN DNA analysis must only be done with an awareness of the special considerations about the potential inaccuracy of the technique (Gill, 2001: 229). It is crucial that both forensic scientists and courtroom staff are aware that LCN DNA evidence is inextricably linked to a higher likelihood of achieving adventitious likenesses or exclusions than standard DNA profiling (Gill, 2001: 230). This is clearly problematic when the results of the technique are being used legally, as incorrect outcomes have devastating and untenable consequences (Morgan and Bull, 2007a: 43). Although it may be possible to statistically account for experimental errors in the future, it will remain crucial to acknowledge the potential for personnel to make mistakes. In U.S. V. Llera-Plaza in 2002, an FBI scientist stated: error rate is a difficult thing to calculateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ to say theres an error rate thats definable would be a misreprese ntationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the method is one thing, people making mistakes is another issue (Saks and Koehler, 2005: 894). 3. Problems with interpretation DNA profiles (both normal and LCN) are often not interpreted correctly. Although DNA evidence ought to only be used to exclude, matches are commonly referred to. For example, following the 1981 murder of Marion Crofts, the UK Forensic Science Service contended that a LCN DNA profile found on the victims clothing matched that of the suspect Jasinskyj (FSS, 2005). Similarly, in U.S. v. Byrd, a forensic scientist for Pennsylvania State Police testified that it was 99% likely that the DNA obtained from the murder implements matched the DNA of Byrd and his victim (Hoffman Wulff, 2006) Despite the fact that DNA analysis superseded techniques such as handwriting analysis and lie-detector tests which were less scientific, it remains important to acknowledge the errors of interpretation which may still occur with the newer techniques (Lynch, 2003). Although the methodology underpinning DNA analysis is scientifically sound and has a firm theoretical basis (Broeders, 2006: 152), using procedures which are commonplace in biomedical research (Lynch, 2003: 95); forensic science remains an applied science. As such, although the results of the biological process may be sound, the inferences made from these results could still be incorrect. This consideration is especially relevant for LCN DNA analysis, where an apparently matching profile can be obtained through contamination of the evidence. Matches and categorical identifications are impossible throughout the realm of forensic investigation, unless the number of potential sources is limited and known, (Broeders, 2006: 153). Although the probability of individuals exhibiting high levels of DNA similarities is considered to be vanishingly small (Broeders, 2006: 155), DNA characteristics are nevertheless class characteristics and thus cannot individualise (Thornton and Peterson, 2002). Only where reference to an indefinitely large set of alternative potential sources has been made, can the Huberian principle of individualisation be exercised (Broeders, 2006: 153). This invokes the classical induction problem, that individualisation from DNA analysis would require the analysis of everyone who has ever lived, is living and will ever live. As such, DNA can only provide a probabilistic conclusion that the profile matches that of the suspect (Broeders, 2006). However, correct forensic procedure would only ever assess the simila rity of DNA profiles after failing to exclude them (Budowle et al, 2001). As Stoney so eloquently highlighted, what made us ever think we could individualise using statistics? (1991: 197). Thus, using DNA profiling for identification rather than exclusion overlooks the very nature of DNA profiling as a classification process and also contradicts one of the key tenets of forensic science: when undertaking comparison of samples, exclusion should be sought rather than a match (Morgan and Bull, 2007: 86). As a result of the increased sensitivity of LCN DNA analysis and the risks detailed above, strictly adhering to the principle of exclusion is especially important. However, it is evident that current use of LCN DNA typing does not always fulfil this key philosophy of forensics. The expectation of obtaining DNA matches has been further complicated by the CSI effect, which has led to juries placing increased trust in the expert witness and contributed to the incorrect idea that forensic science is infallible (Morgan and Bull, 2007a). Although LCN DNA typing uses scientific techniques, in the courtroom credibility is fashioned and undermined in testimony (Lynch, 1998: 829). As the judge and jury are unlikely to be familiar with scientific theory and practice (Morgan and Bull, 2007a), the jurys status as a susceptible body of individuals, whose judgment may have been affected by media portrayals of powerful and successful forensic techniques becomes most significant (Morgan and Bull, 2007a: 44). Although courts tend to place their trust in the expert witness (Lynch, 2003), incorrect expert testimony has been cited as a contributor in 63% of wrongful convictions (Saks and Koehler, 2005: 893). Adherence to the exclusionary principle is therefore particularly impo rtant, especially due to the sensitivity of LCN DNA profiling. The CSI effect has also increased juridical expectation for evidence to be presented. Juries now often demand unreasonable levels of physical evidence in order to reach a verdict (Morgan and Bull, 2007: 84). Negative evidence expert witnesses may even be called upon to explain an absence of evidence in a trial (Hoffman Wulff, 2006). Indeed, the increased sensitivity of detection provided by LCN DNA analysis may act to further such expectations. However, it is important for forensic scientists and courtroom staff to remain mindful that contacts that are unrelated to the forensic event may have transferred enough DNA to be detected by LCN analysis. 4. The Courtroom Although DNA profiling utilises scientific techniques and may thus appear to be an objective procedure, the evidence itself remains silent and must be given a voice in the courtroom (Jasanoff, 2006: 330). As such, the objective science has to be represented. This need for representation renders the courtroom a sociology of knowledge machine, within which uncertainty can be produced (Lynch, 1998: 829). Indeed in 1995, U.S. v. Simpson, saw the defendant being exonerated after his star-studded legal team exploited every weakness in the process of evidence translation from crime scene to courtroom. (Jasanoff, 1998: 715). As there are so many limitations to consider where LCN DNA profiling is used, it is possible for lawyers to use strategically deployed language and powerful visualisations of evidence to dramatically influence legal proceedings (Jasanoff, 1998). There is therefore a strong argument for controls on evidence integrity and expert quality to be implemented, as seen in the U.S. legal system. Frye v. United States, 1923, constitutes the principal control on evidence in the American courts, defining expertise as: that which has gained general acceptance in the particular field in which it belongs (Saks and Koehler, 2005: 894). Regulations such as these are urgently required in the UK, where novel scientific techniques are currently accepted, without special scrutiny (Ormerod, 2002: 774). It is perhaps telling that LCN DNA evidence is considered admissible in UK trials, but used only as a last resort in a US criminal case (Hoffman Wulff, 2006: 4). Conclusion This essay has argued that, although biochemistry is undeniably of great utility for forensic science, the bridge between a laboratory science and an applied science must be carefully negotiated. This argument has been demonstrated through a focus upon the limitations of the use of LCN DNA profiling. However, although convicting a suspect solely on the basis of LCN DNA evidence would not be wise, doing so would also contradict a key tenet of forensic analysis: the need to employ a number of independent techniques (Morgan and Bull, 2007: 86). The limitations of LCN DNA analysis would be greatly reduced in significance if the findings are supported or contradicted by evidence from other techniques, as dictated by the philosophy of forensic science. This paper has demonstrated that the limitations of LCN DNA typing are considerable, however adhering to the tenets of forensic investigation will mean that these limitations are highly likely to become exposed or negated.

Seeing Ourselves: An Analysis of Ideology and Fantasy in Popular Advert

Seeing Ourselves: An Analysis of Ideology and Fantasy in Popular Advertising In the arena of advertising in modern Western society, the consumer can become numb from over-saturation. Advertising stretches over all forms of media, with independence that critic Judith Williamson says intentionally reflects our own human reality (Lord, 263). Advertising becomes a natural presence for consumers; it overwhelms us until we stop trying to understand and decode the images and slogans presented to us. In "The Rhetoric of the Image", critic Roland Barthes uses particular advertising images as dissection models to systematically extract the meaning of cultural codes. In her essay "Decoding Advertisements", Judith Williamson discusses the self-reflective advertising system that assigns human values to products to promote the purchasing of these products to satisfy a non-material need. Advertising, in effect, sells us ourselves, or at least what we would like ourselves to be (264). The combined theories of Barthes and Williamson are a solid springboard in discussing two a dvertisements: one in print and one in the medium of television. The print advertisement is for a men's cologne called "Romance". The magazine ad features a black and white photo of a man holding a woman as she bends backwards, careening almost to the point of falling off of a tire swing. The second ad is a thirty second "spot" depicting three young teenage girls who flirtatiously use their Coca Cola cards to get "free stuff" from a surprised (albeit pleased) male clerk. In both ads, beyond the surface of the initial message there resides a somewhat disturbing subtext of sexism, male dominance, and male fantasy. In order to sell their products, Ralph Lauren and Coca Cola ... ...d titillate. The old expression is "sex sells" but what really sells is male dominated sexual fantasy. This is not to say that all advertisements are sexist, or sexist against only women, but it is to say that in many ads what may seem like a simple image of "romance" or a fun trip to the store is really an entire structure of meaning. Roland Barthes and Judith Williamson employ almost scientific methods to extract rhetoric from advertising images but even their methods are not foolproof. The structure of meaning in an advertisement will vary upon the person perceiving it. The important thing is to recognize common dominant ideologies in ads, and the values that advertisements want us to desire and attain through their product. If we must buy into ourselves, we should at least make an informed decision before we accept and pay for ideology which is not our own.

In What Ways May Different Groups Of English Speakers Differ In Their Conversation Style? Essay

Question 2 In what ways may different groups of English speakers differ in their conversation style? For word restriction purposes the focus for this essay will be primarily on material from chapter one of the Open University course book 2 (CB 2) and The Open University audio cassette 3 band 3(AU3B3). It would be most interesting to look at all the different examples of different groups; unfortunately doing this would mean exceeding the word limit. Therefore the focus will be restricted to only three or four different groups. First of all it is a good idea to examine the semantics behind the phrase of â€Å"conversation style† before looking at the different groups of English speakers. â€Å"Conversation is without doubt the foundation stone of the social world – human beings learn to talk in it, find a mate with it, are socialized through it, rise in social hierarchy as a result of it, and, it is suggested, may even develop mental illness because of it.† (Beattie, 1983, p.2) 1 This is a very captivating statement and helps to sum up the incredible power that the actual word â€Å"conversation† has in the social world Due to lack of more precise materialistic evidence, it is possibly more interesting to look at â€Å"conversation style† and then briefly discuss the different styles that exist amongst social groups giving specific examples rather than focusing on one specific area only (such as gender). That would make it easier to find out if there are any resemblances amongst the different social groups and their conversation styles. The term â€Å"conversation† can be interpreted in a multiplicity of different ways. The varieties range from a formal speech (that has been pre-scripted and is just simply read out) to a casual conversation between friends. As a result of this wide range of speech types, there are great many different conversation styles present. Conversation is not necessarily simply informal talk between speakers; it can also be used in more loser terms for example to give sense of the diversity of ways in which English is used in modern society in everyday talk. Everyday talk refers to anything from political speech making to language at work. The idea of conversation is also about how people are using language to express and pursue relationships. What does â€Å"conversation style† actually mean? A â€Å"conversation† is a means of â€Å"communicating† with others. The â€Å"style† here refers to the combination of features that relate to meaning and management of conversation such as rhythm, pronunciation or intonation. The style of an individual is said to be related to his/her social background, his/her class, his/her age and/or his/her gender. There are a great variety of styles within even one particular social group. It can be said that generally each individual has his/her specific â€Å"style† of talking.2 In modern society there are a great many different groups of English speakers and they vary widely in the way that they communicate with each other or with different groups. There are many interesting investigations taking place. It would now be appealing to have a look at what sorts of investigations have been made and how these groups of English speakers differ in their conversation style There is an interesting example of how people with different socio-cultural backgrounds can differ in conversation style in CB 2. (The example being referred to is on page 17.) It is based on a study by Deborah Tannen (year unknown). A group of what primarily appear to be all Americans, however one selection comes from California, and the second from New York and there is one woman from England meet for dinner. Deborah Tannen’s first discovery was how dominant the New Yorkers were in conversation throughout their meal. They were so dominant that even the Californians picked up on how dominant they were. One of these Californian men remarked upon how the New Yorkers conversations tended to overlap a great deal more than in California that in California at least people pause between conversations. The Californians also thought that the New Yorkers tended to ask a great deal of personal questions, their response to this was just that it was â€Å"their† way of being polite. As for the English woman, the Americans found her hard to understand as her intonations were very monotonous. Deborah Tannen’s findings are parallel to other studies that have been carried out amongst other cultural groups or gender groups, as shown in the following paragraphs. Another interesting issue brought up in chapter one of CB 2 is that of gender differences. Most men appear to be under the impression that it is women who dominate in conversations. They always have the tendency of saying that women talk too much. However, recent research has found that in fact when women are amongst a mixed group of male and female members will talk less than the men. The women are also found to be less competitive and more cooperative in conversations. Women are also said to use more tag questions, intensifiers and hedges. According to research, women are the dominant compliment givers. They also tend to use rhetoric more often than men such as â€Å"What a nice dress!† It is could also be due to the way that woman are brought up, having a less dominant position in society or perhaps due to the way that men and women are in different subcultures even as children. In the latter, this could lead to misunderstandings between the sexes because of the way men and women interpret different speech behaviours. There is one particular ethnic group that fluctuates in conversation style which is the Aboriginal English group found in minority groups across Australia. Aboriginal English has been found to differ from Standard Australian English. Diane Keats researched on Aboriginal English groups in Australia and discovered that particularly in the more rural areas of Australia there were several distinctive features that were different from Standard Australian English. She found that they differed from the Standard in pronunciation, vocabulary and even actual interaction between people was different. There were even difficulties that arose when the Aboriginal groups mixed with the Standard groups. It is particularly when they communicate cross-culturally that problems and misunderstandings may occur. For example, in Aboriginal society it is natural to have frequent silences in a conversation. It is a particular sign of politeness allowing for the other person to opt their opinion. Sometimes the answer or the conversation itself even, will last over a time period of several days. There are several reasons why they are unlike the Standard Australian groups, amongst others it is due to their different ways of living. â€Å"The Aboriginal people experience much personal privacy, unlike the mainstream Australian society, through their indirect style of verbal interaction.† (CB 2, chapter one, p.28) An example of their indirect style is the use of direct questions to elicit orientation such as asking â€Å"You been to shop?† The speaker appears to demonstrate known or presumed information for conformation or rejection. They tend not to make direct requests; they rather use indirect forms if they have a specific request such as â€Å"Can you give me a lift to town?† They will ask â€Å"You going to town?† They are also very discrete about their own opinions. If they discover that they have conflicting opinions they will minimize their own opinions. There are some more typical features in the transcription of the conversation between two Aboriginal English women on AU03B2. (See Appendix A) The first thing noticeable in the transcript is the frequency in which the deletion of the letter â€Å"h† occurs. Already in the Lorina’s first line the letter has been deleted. And the way both women say â€Å"yea† instead of â€Å"yeah†. There is also a tendency for utterances to latch on to another with pausing takes place repeatedly such as when they are talking about a big frog. Their sentences are regularly incomplete und unstructured such as in the very first sentence â€Å"‘Igh school was all right, I reckon, in Bourke† this is not a grammatically correct sentence structure and an incomplete sentence at the time when Lorina says â€Å"In Weel. Yea†. This is the sort of expression a person uses when thinking and speaking simultaneously. A final aspect, other then the ones listed in the Study Guide is their use of verb tenses. For instance, when Karen says â€Å"Sit down there, never used to move.† she started a sentence in the present tense â€Å"sit† and finished in the past tense â€Å"used to†. This is interesting as this can also occur amongst Standard English speakers when talking fast. After reading the transcript, the comprehension of what the two women said, becomes easier. If the tape is listened to on its own it can be quite hard at times to understand as the pronunciations do not sound like the Standard English, whereas the transcript, with the exception of a few slightly more Aboriginal features, mirrors the Standard English much more strongly. Diane Eades research showed that there are still problems in communication style between Aboriginal and Non-Aboriginal social groups in Australia that are worked on to this day. It is also interesting to briefly look at the extract on p.15 of CB 2 about the conversation between a policeman and a black man in the 1960s. This today is often considered to be a form of racism. It is intriguing to see how â€Å"bad† language was used back in the 1960s even by law enforcers. The policeman has used the typical racist term of â€Å"boy† as term of address for the black man, if the man had been white he would not have referred to him as â€Å"boy†. People, white people, â€Å"labelled† black people as trouble makers. So you were immediately categorized a criminal just if you had darker skin. It is extremely shocking that a police man would have even used name-calling to address the black man, before even knowing anything about him. If you are black then you must be evil, that has been an ideal for many people until fairly recently. However this exists to a certain extent even today, in that due to the fact that in Europe there are many black drug dealers from Northern Africa so that as soon as someone who is black shows up in a well-known drug dealing area, they are frequently then instantly questioned by the police. The way different groups of English speakers vary in their â€Å"conversation styles† is a fascinating and fairly broad topic to examine. It appears that there is no actual â€Å"Universal Standard English†. There is a world-wide (not just refined to the United States of America) multicultural mosaic/ melting pot3 of cultural groups even within a single language society which is to a certain degree trying hard to mould into a salad bowl4. An ideal solution would be a mixture of a melting pot and a salad bowl where people are still able to maintain their own cultural habits and can still communicate with other social group easily. A final point to make is that it is also important to realise how essential language is when engaging in social activities and relationships. Hence, to notice how language and society are interlinked. Language and indeed communication is used to share knowledge and experience between speakers. Communication is also about binding people together in order to allow them to negotiate joint understandings of the world. Communication has different functions in different contexts. This could be due to age difference and respect from the pupil’s part. Without language society could not exist to the same extent by which it does today. Remark: * CB 2 refers to Maybin, J. and Mercer, N.(2002) , Using English from conversation to canon, The Open University and Routledge Appendix A: * Transcription of conversation between two Aboriginal English women in Australia taken from Study Guide 2, Open University Bibliography: > Maybin, J. and Mercer, N.(2002) , Using English from conversation to canon, The Open University and Routledge > U210 Audio Cassette 3, Band 3, The Open University > Study Guide 2,U210, The Open University 1 Introduction section 1.1. p 5 in CB 2 2 Section 1.4 p 16 in Chapter 1 of CB 2 3 lots of different cultural groups living together (perhaps an ideal way of living) 4 loss of individual identity to become a uniform cultural group (cultural assimilation)

He Repairing Jobs That Fail to Satisfy.

1. Introduction Analysis of the article, we have a certain understanding of the Repairing Jobs That fail to Satisfy. The report focuses on how DrainFlow can improve in three areas: job structure, incentive structure, and hiring practices. The main contents include an introduction to the problems DrainFlow is encountering, analyses of the current business, and recommendations on how DrainFlow can overcome these issues to foster a long-term competitive advantage. Goal and RecommendationsThe goal of this proposal is to provide recommendations for a new job structure, a new incentive structure, and new hiring practices. The job structure recommendations will allow for more cross training between office workers and service providers. This will enrich all jobs at DrainFlow by adding different tasks, autonomy, and feedback. The new incentive structure will allow for flexible benefits and recognition. This is designed to motivate employees and improve customer service. Lastly, the new hiring practices will provide a repeatable solution for finding a cohesive set of new employees. . Satisfaction The job characteristics model offers such a framework. It identifies five primary job characteristics, interrelationship, and impact on employee productivity, motivation, and satisfaction. (Hakman, Lawler, 1994) The present system of job design may be contribution to employee dissatisfaction; the most important reason is from the interrelationship, according the figure from the essay, we can know the lowest satisfaction parts are the interactions with the employees’ supervisor and the company asked them to do the work.Therefore, after our group analysis we think the important with employees’ dissatisfaction of reasons are the interactions and motivation problems. Frome the essay we know DrainFlow company’s employees working in four basic jobs categories, plumbers, plumber’s assistants, order processors, and bulling representatives. That is a very good team to make the response with customer's demand, all the works division very clearly, through it customer can very quickly get the service from the company, and save a lot of time for the company. However, there has a big defect for this company.Employees lack of interaction, they just do the work what kind of work belong to them and do not care about other employees’ work, because the employees just want to finish the work and take the wages, the work’s wages are same no matter with the customers feel satisfaction or not. It is not very good for the company to development, so our group suggest add the rewards system to increase the employees’ motivation. For example when the employees after service if the customer feel dissatisfaction they can make a call to the DrainFlow Company which employees make them feel dissatisfaction.The company should record that, and when the employees take the wages, company can follow this record to give the rewards or punish to the employees. According this system the employees will have to motivation to better cooperation with co-workers and feel more satisfaction with works. 3. Data Analysis Job Structure and Organizational Design It is evident from the Original Survey that DrainFlow employees are not satisfied with their jobs Research suggests that this could be a reason for concern. Job dissatisfaction can lead to higher absenteeism, job turnover and workplace deviance which can lead to decreased levels of productivity.Satisfied employees are more likely to talk positively about the organization, help others, and go beyond the normal expectations of their jobs. Therefore, increased employee satisfaction at DrainFlow can directly affect positive customer outcomes. Satisfied employees increase customer satisfaction and loyalty, which leads to repeat business. All DrainFlow employees work directly with the customer, so it is imperative that DrainFlow take measures to ensure both job satisfaction and custo mer satisfaction.DrainFlow’s current organizational structure is designed to keep costs as low as possible. DrainFlow achieves this through specialization of its work force. Plumbers are the most specialized and highly trained and are therefore paid the highest wages. Plumber assistants are paid about one-fourth the salary of a plumber. 4. Incentive Structure There are no rewarding variable-pay programs. Plumbers are compensated the most, based on their high level of skill while the rest of the employees make approximately one-fourth of the plumber’s wage.The current pay structure may be externally competitive; however, DrainFlow must also look at the internal equity or worth of each job to the organization. With low customer retention and customer satisfaction, DrainFlow may consider paying employees more to meet customer needs. Additionally, high pay often leads to better-qualified, more motivated employees who want to stay with their current organization. DrainFlow must weigh the costs and benefits of a cash rewards system. Financial incentives can have certain negative impacts by fostering unethical behaviors to obtain personal objectives.These might include, but are not limited to, billing work performed at a lower price to make a sale, offering free parts at company expense and coercing clients into non-complaint and positive review situations. Therefore, a cash rewards system should not be the only basis of DrainFlow’s incentive structure. Renaldo does not mention finding a balance between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. Examples of intrinsic rewards include private and public recognition, employee of the month awards, or even a personal thank you note.Some research shows that while financial incentives provide short-term motivation, intrinsic or nonfinancial rewards motivate long term. This helps employees feel valuable and needed in a dynamic environment and would be valuable in DrainFlow’s incentive structure. 5. Hiring P ractices It is imperative in any place of employment to hire individuals suited for specific positions, particularly for positions involving customer service. Organizational structure and clarity is required to ensure that DrainFlow is attracting the right type of potential employees.Interested candidates must also fully understand company goals and all job responsibilities. Employees hired based on inaccurate perceptions developed during the interview process can result in employees that are unqualified for the position and/or dissatisfied with work. This is the current situation at DrainFlow. Most employees lack training in customer service, organizational behavior and are anxious about speaking with customers. Order processors do not have sufficient knowledge or skill to explain the customer's situation to DrainFlow Plumbers or Plumber Assistants.Billing representatives must deal with the negative reactions of dissatisfied customers, however, are only involved at the end of the j ob process and unaware of any job details. DrainFlow plumbers do not like being in the position of having to deliver the bad news of an unexpectedly high bill to customers. Recommendations 6. Recommendations Firstly,repair workers must adapt to the development of technology requirements, which determines the development of repair industry. Thus the repair workers not only improve their own quality, , the government also should make efforts to improve the quality of workers.People also need to strengthen the understanding of theory and equipment using Enterprises ought to do a lot of things for personnel training,which can improve the level of the technical. The enterprises regularly hold all kinds of different levels of training to enhance the effect of training and improve the quality of training. Combining with practice, the enterprises continuously strengthen the occupation morals to establish the philosophy of† serve customer,and the quality is the perfect†.The Big f ive personality traits has been preferably used,since it is able to measure the customer service responsibilities and emotional labor. The Big Five personality traits are  openness,  conscientiousness,  extraversion,  agreeableness, andneuroticism. And then let me show you the Big five personality traits in detail,and it contribute much to the customer service responsibilities and emotional labor. Openness to experience  Ã¢â‚¬â€œAppreciation for art,  emotion, adventure, unusual ideas,  curiosity, and variety of experience.Openness reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity, creativity and a preference for novelty and variety. Conscientiousness  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ. A tendency to show  self-discipline, act  dutifully, and aim for achievement; planned rather than spontaneous behavior; organized, and dependable. Extraversion  Ã¢â‚¬â€œEnergy, positive emotions,  surgency, assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to seekstimulation  in the company of others, and tal kativeness. Agreeableness  Ã¢â‚¬â€œA tendency to be  compassionate  and  cooperative  rather than  suspicious  and  antagonistic  towards others.It is also a measure of ones' trusting and helpful nature, and whether a person is generally well tempered or not. Neuroticism  The tendency to experience unpleasant emotions easily, such as  anger,  anxiety, depression, orvulnerability. Neuroticism also refers to the degree of emotional stability and impulse control, and is sometimes referred by its low pole  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ â€Å"emotional stability†. 7. Material Incentive Many people think that spiritual incentive effect more long, but sometimes it may only play a short-term effect.Such as the boss public praise or certificate of an employee, the employee will not only have a sense of pride, will thus germination a pay raise or promotion of desire, because he will recognize as a signal, if only praise without any action, the incentive effect is very difficult to achieve. That is to say spiritual incentive effect also need to consolidate the material incentive. Material incentive is the use of physical means to make inspired by material satisfaction, so as to further mobilize the enthusiasm, initiative and creativity.Material incentive funds, awards, by satisfies the requirement of production, stimulate their efforts, the motivation to work. Its starting point is to concern the vital interests of the masses, and continuously meet the people's increasing needs of material and cultural life. Incentive, can ease the staff some particular period inner imbalance. Therefore, to create a motivating employees be enthusiastic and press on the enterprise environment, which has the effect of general material incentives irreplaceable.Spiritual motivation is intrinsic motivation, means the intangible incentive spirit aspect, including employee empowerment, on their job performance in recognition, fair, open the promotion system, to provide learning and development, further improve their chances, flexible working time system flexible and establish the road occupation career development for everyone characteristics etc.. Spirit encouragement is an intensive, complex and changeable, wide application, far-reaching, it is advocated the spirit of enterprise management by the means of moral education, is the effective way to mobilize staff enthusiasm, initiative and creativity. . Strategy and Implementation To begin the challenging process of improving employee and customer satisfaction while increasing DrainFlow’s profits it is vital that the recommendations that have been presented in this report be implemented in a clear and systematic fashion across the affected departments within DrainFlow and across the various regional locations. The implementation of these recommendations will require the full dedication of upper management at DrainFlow to ensure that the organizational changes as well as process and protocol changes are e mbraced by all the employees.Upper Management will be responsible for implementing and monitoring the new job structure, incentive structure and hiring practices outlined in the recommendations. This will be accomplished by introducing the program to all employees and setting their expectations about implementation. Managers must realize that a cultural shift must happen as well which can take time. Change management will be important throughout this process and managers must measure each step of the implementation to make sure it is on track. Success will be measured in four areas: customer satisfaction, customer etention, employee satisfaction, and profit. To measure customer satisfaction, a survey will be given to willing customers to periodically measure their satisfaction. It will ask about different aspects of their service that encompass all types of employees at DrainFlow. Customer retention numbers will also be monitored and computed to track repeat business. Employee satis faction will be measured against pre-program satisfaction levels. By using the same survey questions as the past survey, managers can better identify trends in the data.Employees will also be asked to rate the new program and suggest adjustments to better meet company goals. 9. Conclusion The above proposal outlined how DrainFlow can improve in three areas: job structure, incentive structure, and hiring practices. The recommendations are relatively easy to implement at little to no cost to DrainFlow. The proposal utilizes the current talent within the organization to manage employee satisfaction and trains employees on vital technical skills that are currently lacking. A new incentive structure will motivate employees in all positions and foster productivity and customer retention.Both concepts lead to increased profit long term. Lastly, by modifying hiring practices, DrainFlow will find and train employees that fit with their business model. With the support of LIGHTNING Consulting , DrainFlow will see a positive increase in both employee and customer satisfaction and lasting success in the plumbing industry. 10. Reference 1. Barb Lyon(2012) Satisfaction of employee. 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