Qualities and Types of Social Anthropology

Qualities and Types of Social Anthropology Introduction Social anthropology is the field of anthropology that studies how living human beings behave in social groups. This essay seeks to explore the history, meaning and essential qualities of social anthropology which distinguish it from other branches of anthropology. In the UK, anthropology is usually primarily concerned with the study of culture. This area is termed social anthropology and it is this designation which is used in England, and to some extent in America, to assign an area of a larger subject of anthropology, the study of humanity from a number of viewpoints. In England social anthropology was only introduced and studied relatively recently during the later decades of the nineteenth century. It became widely recognised as a discipline later on and it has been taught under that name since. However, its academic base goes back further. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, (2004) The beginnings of social anthropology lay in the nineteenth century. Examining its roots, we can see an early definition of culture from one of the pioneers of of social anthropology. Sir Edward Burnett Taylor (2 October 1832 2 January 1917), an English anthropologist, defined the term culture as, that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. Evans Pritchard, (2004) Subsequent study has led anthropologists to determine that culture is not innate, rather it is learned by a person from family and society. Therefore, it does not have any genetic connection, because even if a person is brought up in a culture different from that in which he was born, he absorbs the culture of the society later on. It has also been observed that people also feel the need to follow their beliefs and traditions of their own culture in adulthood, even though they might not agree with certain belief s in it. Edmund Ronald Leach, (1982) The refinement of theories of culture which are used today owes much to the work of the founders of the subject. However, social anthropology was also a product of its time; it was formulated at the time European societies had empires. Despite the fact there has been much controversial argument about the ways colonialism may have influenced anthropological study, at least one of the main aims of a foremost creator of the discipline stays vital to current anthropology study: the comparative study of the different forms of human social life and cultural experience. Evans Pritchard, (2004). From its early days, social anthropology has become an international discipline studied in universities around the world. There are differences globally in the study of social anthropology. For example, in America social anthropology is referred to as either ethnology or sociology. E. E. Evans-Pritchard, (2004). In general, the United States displays a different approach to anthropology. Anthropology in North America is concerned with the study of human difference and adaptability. It is usually divided into four groups: biological (physical) anthropology, archaeological anthropology, linguistic anthropology Cultural anthropology. Insa Nolte (2010) I believe it is important to have a look at each subfield as each of them emphasise a different definition of anthropology and stress various approaches to this vast subject. This will demonstrate that the subject is not as what we know and study in the UK, but what the US, and due to its large postgraduate education programmes and cultural influence, a large portion of the global academic community sees the subject of anthropology. Biological or physical anthropology Biological Anthropology is an approach to evolution and adaptationof humanity. It seeks to compare humans and animals to understand human unlikeness and biological cohesion; examines comparative data across time to explain the evolutionary history of hominines over the last 5 million years; explores difference in human development and health, and the mechanisms that influence contemporary and historical population differences; and examines individual attitude in terms of evolution and adaptation and its intellectual blueprint. Angela P. Cheater, (1989) Archaeological Anthropology Archaeological anthropology is the study of ancient human societies through their physical remains and environment. It deals with the time during which humans built up their patterns of behaviour. It aims to make over the nature and development of specific societies and explain the difference that happened among past societies. Angela P. Cheater, (1989) Linguistic Anthropology Linguistic anthropology is a branch of anthropology which is concentrating on relation between language and culture and the place of language in the wider social and cultural framework. Angela P. Cheater (1989) Cultural anthropology Cultural Anthropology is a method of studying worldwide cultures by observation and cultural group comparison (e.g. Japan and England). Fieldwork is conducted on cultures around the world. A societys social and context environment is examined in an observational and participatory study. Key questions in cultural anthropology include: How are we different or similar? However, the philosophy is to go above ethnocentrism, the superficial belief that one culture is better than others. When each societys balance and structure is considered, rules of moral care and patterns of social co-operation are examined in their own socio-cultural context, which provide meaning to what an outsider may otherwise consider to be strange. This practice of cultural relativism stresses that there are no better or lower cultures; all cultures are meaningful in their own context. M. Fortes, (2003) The approach and classification of anthropology in the United States shows that the subject is a product of the culture and societies in which it is studied, just as social anthropology in the late nineteenth century owed its outlook to colonial attitudes in society. Further evidence of varying interpretations can be found in Mexico where archaeology is the term given to what we call social anthropology in England. Generally it is difficult to explain what anthropology is about and what anthropologists do due to the different interpretations of the subject. However, what social anthropologists share is an interest in different ways people have of looking at the world they live in. These different ways are not individual character, but different views of the world learned as people grow up in different societies. Angela P. Cheater, (1989) Conclusion The world we live in today has changed since the nineteenth century and anthropology has changed with it. Distances between human beings have reduced due to the ease of communication, transport, advances in technology and migration. As Leach states, Globalisation does not seem to be making the world we live in less culturally assorted. Whether we study anthropology, with its various definitions, in Britain or elsewhere, the study of different ways of living and seeing the world appear just as important as ever, if not more so. Edmund Ronald Leach, (1982) References: Evans Pritchard (2004) Social anthropology p43, London. Evans Pritchard (2004) Social anthropology p45, London Edmund Ronald Leach (1982), Social anthropology p 203-205 Insa Nolte (2010) Lecture notes Angela P. Cheater (1989) Social anthropology an alternative introduction p 205-206(2), New York. Angela P. Cheater (1989) Social anthropology an alternative introduction p 210-213 (2), New York. Angela P. Cheater (1989) Social anthropology an alternative introduction p 303(2), New York. M. Fortes, Social anthropology at Cambridge since 1990 (2003), p 10-13, University press of Cambridge Angela P. Cheater (1989) Social anthropology an alternative introduction p 305-307(2), University of Cambridge press.

The Teaching of Saint Gregory Essay -- Christology, God, Creation

A. â€Å"The Teaching of Saint Gregory† contains many theologically concepts as God and Creation, Christology, human Sin and salvation, eschatology and resurrection. Owing to the limited space, I will only explore some key elements which I think are worthy to be discussed. First, Gregory depicts the God’s attributes – it begins with the faith of Trinity- God created the world and humankind, the Son saved humankind and the Spirit sustained the world (259, 263, 362). There is no one before God and there is no creator (259). God is incomprehensible and almighty (259, 366). God created two kinds of creatures: visible (the creatures in the world) and invisible (angels, include the evil â€Å"Follower behind†) (262, 278). Second, man was created in God’s image–which gave man rational mind and independent will so that man will be aware of God. (273), praise God (261) and live in a good life with God. (Enoch’s life 294). Third, in Christology, Gregory emphasizes the incarnation of the Son is not a sudden idea, not a phantom (402) but an eternal redemption plan of God. All the prophecies was foreshadowing Christ (342) and concerning Christ (377). Gregory skims the life and teaching of Jesus but emphasizes much in Christ’s death and resurrection. Jesus humbled Himself to the indignity of death (385, 587-595), came to bridge the separated, to build up what was destroyed (591). In Gregory’s view, the cross of Christ is the anti-type of the tower of Babel. The tower stands for scattering, represents God’s wrath of human’s sin; the cross stands for gathering that Jesus redirects people back to God (584, 585). With the promise of God’s spirit dwelling in the believers, Gregory further insists the Martyrs live and intercede for men (596-597) which ... ...however, find a light to solve the problem of illiteracy. Armenians is the only nation who maintains Christianity as the national religion to recent decades. Reasons for success are many, like a distinct geography, recurred prosecutions, and the martyrs linked with national pride could be the dominant factors; but also, the book of Teaching of St. Gregory is definitely a significant reason to keep the Armenians’ faith in the long history. Its â€Å"non-difficult,† comprehensive, systematic way explaining God’s demand, human’s sin & responsibility, God’s protection with whom in prosecution; provide reason, strength and faith for Armenians to live their lives faithfully. Another important thing the church can do is to adopt new technology, A-V computerized aids to polish the traditions of Christian faith and provide a fresh expression of Christianity to our neighbours.

Puritans Views On Sex And Morality Essay

What were the Puritans views on sex and morality? How do they compare to American values of today? Puritan is described as one who lives in accordance with Protestant precepts, especially one who regards pleasure or luxury as sinful. It is said that a widely known Puritan by the name of John Calvin (1509-1564) was cheerless and had a viciously malevolent theology based on total human depravity and the implacable wrath of God. An unhappy and unhealthy ascetic, he had ulcers, tuberculosis, and migraine headaches and considered life of little value and God as a harsh tyrant. Calvin set up a brutal political theocracy. No dancing, fancy clothes, and jewelry were allowed. He was in favor of death penalty for adultery. Even legitimate love was stringently regulated. Solemn weddings with no revelry were the beliefs that he preached to others. The Calvin marriage had two functions: (1) to produce offspring (2) to eliminate incontinence. Another Puritan believer who was famous during his times was John Knox . He had Blue Laws of the 1650s, and was against Sunday amusements, smoking, drinking, gambling, fancy clothing. He also promoted public whippings, scarlet letters, execution for adulterers, and the Salem â€Å"witch† executions. Stern puritan traits were often only expressions that masked moods of mischief and romance. Sex outside of marriage was attacked. Puritans greatly enjoyed sex inside marriage and propagated the concept of the virtue of virginity. 16th Century Puritans tried to combine the ideals of love with the normality of sex into marriage. They also valued money more than leisure, and success more than culture. After the 17th century. the Puritans as a political entity largely disappeared, but Puritan attitudes and ethics continued to exert an influence on American society. They made a virtue of qualities that made for economic success—self-reliance, frugality, industry, and energy—and through them influenced modern social and economic life. For the Puritans, a person by nature was wholly sinful and could achieve good only by severe and unremitting discipline. Hard work was considered a religious duty and emphasis was laid on constant self-examination and self-discipline. Profanation of the Sabbath day, blasphemy, fornication, drunkenness, playing games of chance, and participation in theatrical performances were penal offenses. It was the notion that Puritans were strict, formal, quick to judge and always on the lookout for anything mischievous. Anything too ostentatious, pretentious or blatant was immediately a source of discipline for the Puritans. On this note, before making a comparison between the two, we must first ask, what is morality? Morality is concerned with the distinction between good and evil or right and wrong. It is the perceived guidelines of a standard of how we live our life, how we act, how we think about things and the protocol of how things work around us.   This first example of immorality may be considered by many as one that does not have anything to do with morality, but if you give it more then cursory thought, you would most likely consider it a morality issue. Luxury things are one of the most prevalent consumer items nowadays. In fact, many major industries stem from this market/ business. If you think deeply about it, WHY do consumers buy luxury items when there are existing items that could as well be the same quality and kind? Luxury items promote the notion that those who belong to a certain class or earning bracket are those who can afford such goods. They promote a certain image of the luxury item purchaser, that they are a â€Å"higher-class† or that they belong to a higher level of social status. This in itself could be seen as condescending. In comparison to the Puritans, indulgence in wordly things are considered â€Å"evil† and unright. Today’s times propagate consumerism, luxury, indulgence, opulence. Whereas, for the Puritans, all these were wrong values as they believed in simplicity. Albert Einstein once said † The value of a man resides in what he gives and not in what he is capable of receiving.† But with the morality and values of America today, it seems, that people are more concerned about what they can receive or benefit over that which they can give. And this is contrary to what Puritans believe in. With regards to sex, Puritans strongly believed in the sanctity of marriage. They believed that sex was only to be enjoyed if it was inside marriage. They valued virginity and upheld rigid values concerning physical intimateness outside of marriage. As compared to a majority of Americans, it seems that in today’s world, they are more open to sexual relations outside of marriage. Many Americans do not believe in preserving their virginity for marriage. This is stark contrast to what Puritans believed in. Perhaps even in relationships, Puritans only believed in relationships with a purpose-one that was heading towards marriage. Where as young people, Generation X,Y,Z and baby boomers do not seem to always have marriage in mind when dating a prospect. This only skims the surface of a myriad of values on sex and morality that separates modern-day Americans from Puritans but this shows the positives and negatives about two very different perspectives and what positive points we can pick up from each aspect. Works Cited McMahon, Dr. C. Matthew. â€Å"Puritan Roots: A Brief Sketch of the Values of Puritanism†. E. C. Hill. Society and Puritanism in Pre-Revolutionary England (2d ed. 1967).

Causation A Human Creation - 530 Words

Causation is not something often taken into consideration as it seems to be an innate process, trying to determine the reason behind something occurring. What is causation, though? It is the relation of cause and effect between two temporally simultaneous events when the first event brings about the other, but how is cause determined? Is it not just constant conjunction, where cause is determined by the previous action? What is causation has plagued many, not just philosophers but those in other professions, the judicial system and scientific community especially. Many from the general populous would refute a claim that there is no such thing as causation, but if countered with the question how does one determine cause then silence would be par for course. The problem with the common perception of causation is that everyone has grown up thinking about cause and effect. If I do this what will be the result? This is something parent and teachers encourage young children to do but this builds in the idea that an action has a predictable and replicable result. Is this always the case? David Hume discusses the idea that we, as human beings, do not observe causation, and that an individual’s perception of causation is built upon past experience and only creates a correlation between events. There are many examples of the correlation which Hume speaks of including the following; a ball hits a window. The window breaks. Therefore the ball broke the window. These events correlateShow MoreRelatedThe Influence and Accomplishments of Thomas Aquinas and G.W. Leibnizs750 Words   |  3 Pagestheorizes that creation is not complete even once some â€Å"thing† has been created completely. He argues that creation is an ongoing process and depends on God for every moment it continues. He elaborates on this by describing God as creation itself, and not necessarily as a formed entity. 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